Introduction

The United Kingdom has significant reserves of primary energy sources, namely coal, oil and natural gas, but these reserves are declining. The UK became a net importer of natural gas again in 2004. Around 74% of UK’s total electricity generation is produced by conventional thermal, around 19% by nuclear, 1% by hydropower, and 5% by renewables. The UK has 19 nuclear reactors generating around 19% of its electricity. Its first commercial nuclear power plant began operating in 1956. The UK's nuclear fleet is nearing the end of its lifetime and some plants built in the 1940s and 1950s have already been shut down. Half of the UK's 14 nuclear sites are due to be decommissioned by 2010, and by 2023 all but one plant, Sizewell B, will have shut.
The UK has ratified the Kyoto protocol. According to the EU burden-sharing programme, the country is committed to reducing emissions by 12% relative to 1990 levels over the period 2008-2012. The UK has also committed itself to moving towards a domestic goal of reducing CO2 emissions to 20% below their 1990 level by 2010. However, the Department of Trade and Industry said in an annual report published in July 2005 that CO2 emissions will only fall 14% below 1990 levels by 2010 at current production levels.
Therefore, the UK Government has started an energy review to consider, among other things, replacing the ageing nuclear power plants by a new fleet to ensure security of supply and curb CO2 emissions. On 11 July 2006, the British Government’s energy review signalled the building of a fleet of new nuclear power plants and on 23 May 2007, the Government’s Energy White Paper, “Meeting the Energy Challenge”, reiterated its backing for “serious consideration” of the nuclear power option. On 10 January 2008, the British Government published a Nuclear White Paper, which announces that a new generation of nuclear power plants will be built in the UK to contribute to the promotion of a “secure, diverse and low-carbon energy mix”. On 12 June 2008, the British Business Secretary, John Hutton, announced the Government’s action plan for the construction of new units. Meanwhile, the Government released its White Paper on Radioactive Waste Management that provides a framework for implementing geological disposal. On 15 April 2009, eleven sites were earmarked as potential locations for new nuclear reactors.

Country Profile

Executive Summary

The United Kingdom has significant reserves of primary energy sources, namely coal, oil and natural gas, but these reserves are declining. The UK became a net importer of natural gas again in 2004. Around 74% of UK’s total electricity generation is produced by conventional thermal, around 19% by nuclear, 1% by hydropower, and 5% by renewables. The UK has 19 nuclear reactors generating around 19% of its electricity. Its first commercial nuclear power plant began operating in 1956. The UK's nuclear fleet is nearing the end of its lifetime and some plants built in the 1940s and 1950s have already been shut down. Half of the UK's 14 nuclear sites are due to be decommissioned by 2010, and by 2023 all but one plant, Sizewell B, will have shut.
The UK has ratified the Kyoto protocol. According to the EU burden-sharing programme, the country is committed to reducing emissions by 12% relative to 1990 levels over the period 2008-2012. The UK has also committed itself to moving towards a domestic goal of reducing CO2 emissions to 20% below their 1990 level by 2010. However, the Department of Trade and Industry said in an annual report published in July 2005 that CO2 emissions will only fall 14% below 1990 levels by 2010 at current production levels.
Therefore, the UK Government has started an energy review to consider, among other things, replacing the ageing nuclear power plants by a new fleet to ensure security of supply and curb CO2 emissions. On 11 July 2006, the British Government’s energy review signalled the building of a fleet of new nuclear power plants and on 23 May 2007, the Government’s Energy White Paper, “Meeting the Energy Challenge”, reiterated its backing for “serious consideration” of the nuclear power option. On 10 January 2008, the British Government published a Nuclear White Paper, which announces that a new generation of nuclear power plants will be built in the UK to contribute to the promotion of a “secure, diverse and low-carbon energy mix”. On 12 June 2008, the British Business Secretary, John Hutton, announced the Government’s action plan for the construction of new units. Meanwhile, the Government released its White Paper on Radioactive Waste Management that provides a framework for implementing geological disposal. On 15 April 2009, eleven sites were earmarked as potential locations for new nuclear reactors.

Security of supply

The United Kingdom has significant reserves of primary energy sources. Extensive coal deposits occur around the eastern and western edges of the Pennines, in South Wales, in the Midlands (Birmingham area), and in the Scottish Central Lowlands. Easily accessible coal seams are, however largely exhausted. Large deposits of petroleum and natural gas under the North Sea came into commercial operation in 1975 and until 2004 the United Kingdom was self sufficient in petroleum. According to Oil and Gas Journal (OGJ), the UK had 4.5 billion barrels of proven crude oil reserves in 2005, the most of any EU member country. However, the importance of oil to the UK economy has steadily declined over the past two decades, with oil's contribution to total energy consumption falling from in 41 percent in 1980 to 36 percent in 2002. In 2006, the UK became a net importer of crude oil for the first time since 1980. In 2005, the UK was still a net exporter by 2.4 million tonnes. According to OGJ, the UK held an estimated 20.8 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of proven natural gas reserves in 2005, a 6 percent decline from the previous year. Since 1997, the UK was a net exporter of natural gas. However, as is the case with the country's oil reserves, most natural gas fields have already reached a high degree of maturity, and the UK became a net importer of gas in 2004. Around 74% of UK’s total electricity generation is produced by conventional thermal, around 19% by nuclear, 1% by hydropower, and 4% by renewables. The UK has 19 nuclear reactors generating around 19% of its electricity. Its first commercial nuclear power plant began operating in 1956. UK’s electricity grid is part of the Union for the Coordination of Transmission of Electricity (UCTE). The UK imports electricity mainly from France.

Nuclear Policy

Until 1980s, UK government policy was clearly to have nuclear energy providing an increasing proportion of UK electricity, with reprocessing of spent fuel to recover fissile materials and increase the utilisation of uranium. In 1995 a review of nuclear power was published as a White Paper, confirming the government’s commitment to it but stating that no public sector support for building new nuclear power plants was granted. The nuclear generating plants apart from Magnox were transferred to the private sector in 1996, under British Energy. The state-owned British Nuclear Fuel Ltd (BNFL) took ownership of all the Magnox power stations as well as the UK fuel cycle facilities. However to comply with UK’s plan to make the energy market more competitive, BNFL was progressively dismantled and its activities were transferred to different players. In 2005, the UK’s civil public sector nuclear sites (including the assets and liabilities previously owned by BNFL) were transferred to the newly created Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA). The other business interests of BNFL were progressively took over by other companies including Magnox North and South, Sellafield sites and Westighouse until 2009.

The government in 1995 determined that decommissioning should be undertaken as soon as reasonably practicable, the rate of dismantling being determined by a variety of factors. All closure dates are end of operational life according to their current licenses. British Energy has been granted a life extension on Dungeness B to 2018. On 11 December 2007 British Energy announced its decision to extend the lives of its Hinkley Point B and Hunterston B nuclear power plants by five years to 2016. Further studies will also be carried out by 2013 regarding the potential for additional life extensions beyond 2016. However, part of the long-term problem in the UK is that costs for decommissioning gas-cooled reactors are much higher per unit of capacity than for light water reactors. This is due to the large volume of material and the need to dispose of a lot of graphite moderator.

Decommissioning waste volumes per unit capacity for Magnox are ten times those for western light water reactors. A Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA) study published in August 2005 estimates that the cost of dismantling and cleaning up Britain’s civil nuclear power stations and infrastructure will amount to at least £56 billion. It shows however that costs involved are quantifiable and manageable. The UK's nuclear fleet is nearing the end of its lifetime and some plants built in the 1940s and 1950s have already been shut down. Half of the UK's 14 nuclear sites are due to be decommissioned by 2010 - and by 2023, all but one plant, Sizewell B, will have shut. On 31 December 2006, the two oldest nuclear power plants in the world, Dungeness A in Kent and Sizewell A in Suffolk, were shut down. The main reasons why were not safety grounds, but because they are less efficient than their larger counterparts, and because a reprocessing plant at Sellafield, which is necessary to make their spent fuel safe, is due to close in 2012.
The Energy White Paper of March 2003 states that the government will “keep the nuclear option open” but does nothing to make new build likely. It also states another White Paper should be produced before they do. Following the latest general election in May 2005, Tony Blair hinted at the possibility of building a new fleet of nuclear plants. The Prime Minister then announced a review of the country’s energy policy, which would include nuclear. On 11 July 2006, the British government’s energy review signalled the building of a fleet of new nuclear power plants and on 23 May 2007, the UK government’s Energy White Paper, Meeting the Energy Challenge, reiterated its backing for “serious consideration” of the nuclear power option. A report of the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), Siting New Nuclear Power Stations, recommends that the new generation of plants be built at existing or redundant civil and military nuclear power stations, as well as at existing coal and/or gas-fired conventional power stations. On 10 January 2008, the British government published a Nuclear White Paper, which announces that a new generation of nuclear power plants will be built in the UK to contribute to the promotion of a “secure, diverse and low-carbon energy mix”.

Two major steps were taken on 12 June 2008 by the British government in the process of building new nuclear reactors in the UK. The British Business Secretary, John Hutton, announced the government’s action plan for the construction of new units. It includes the creation of an Office of Nuclear Development within the Department of Business and a Nuclear Development Forum that will gather together government and industry representatives. On 15 April 2009, eleven sites were earmarked as potential locations for new nuclear reactors. The list of nominated sites was published by the British government (the Department of Energy and Climate Change- DECC). The sites are all at or next to existing nuclear plants in order to diminish the risk of local community opposition. The sites have been nominated by EDF Energy, E-on and RWE npower, and by the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA). The main ones are the following (see the map below): Hartlepool in Durham, Heysham in Lancashire, Dungeness in Kent, Sellafield in Cumbria, Kirksanton in Cumbria, Braystones in Cumbria, Wylfa in Anglesey, Oldbury in Gloucestershire, Hinkley Point in Somerset, Bradwell in Essex and Sizewell in Suffolk.

Safety and Waste Management

The first plants were commissioned in 1950s. They were Magnox reactors, which use natural uranium metal fuel, have a graphite moderator and are cooled with carbon dioxide. The Magnox units were originally licensed for 30 years, but in some cases this was extended to 50 years. However on economic grounds they will all be closed by 2010. The second generation is Advanced Gas-cooled Reactors (AGR). 14 were built at seven sites, starting up 1976-89. The type is unique to UK. And yet each pair was a unique design so there was little standardisation, and operational problems were significant. In 1995 a pressurized water reactor was built, which is newer than most PWRs in Western Europe.The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) regulates the nuclear industry through its Nuclear Directorate (ND). It is responsible for the UK safety regulation of nuclear power stations, nuclear chemical plants, decommissioning, defence nuclear facilities, nuclear safety research and strategy and for civil nuclear operational security and safeguards matters.

The UK government had been advised since 1978 by its Radioactive Waste Management Advisory Committee but this was replaced in 2004 by the Committee on Radioactive Waste Management (CoRWM ), which is charged with again reviewing the options for long-term storage and disposal. CoRWM carried out expert, public and stakeholder consultation before recommending deep geological disposal in 2006. The government released its White Paper on Radioactive Waste Management that provides a framework for implementing geological disposal. The type of facility that is planned is a deep geological repository, but the exact design will not be determined until a site has been selected. Communities all over the UK are invited to express interest in hosting the facility on principles of “voluntarism and partnership”.

Under the 2004 Energy Act, the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority was set up and funded. It is responsible for cleaning up the UK’s legacy of nuclear wastes on 20 sites including 39 reactors, 5 fuel reprocessing plants as well as other fuel cycle and research facilities. These used to be the responsibility of British Nuclear Group (the decommissioning and clean-up arm of BNFL) and the UK Atomic Energy Authority, and in April 2005 NDA took over all designated liabilities and assets from those bodies.

Solid low-level wastes are disposed of in a 120 ha repository at Drigg in Cumbria, near Sellafield. Intermediate-level waste is stored at Sellafield and other source sites pending disposal. High-level wastes are stored at Sellafield. Some have been vitrified there, and are stored in stainless steel canisters in silos. All HLW is to be stored for 50 years before disposal, to allow cooling. In June 2008, the government released its White Paper on Radioactive Waste Management that provides a framework for implementing geological disposal.

Climate Change

The UK has ratified the Kyoto protocol. According to the EU burden-sharing programme, the country is committed to reducing emissions by 12% relative to 1990 levels over the period 2008-2012. The UK has also committed itself to moving towards a domestic goal of reducing CO2 emissions to 20% below their 1990 level by 2010. The UK Climate Change Programme was published in November 2000. It contains a package of measures, which aim at meeting the UK’s Kyoto target and move towards our domestic goal. A review of the UK Climate Change Programme began in Autumn 2004 and a revised programme was published in the first half of 2005. The Energy White Paper, published in February 2003, defined four goals for energy policy, the first of which was to put the country on a long-term path to reduce the UK’s CO2 emissions by 60% by 2050. In April 2004, “Energy Efficiency- the Government’s Plan for Action” was published. The Emissions Trading Scheme forms a key part of the “Plan for Action” and promotes the reduction of CO2 emissions without compromising the UK’s industrial competitiveness. Climate change policy is under review and a new strategy on fossil fuel use is expected. The Department of Trade and Industry said in an annual report published in July 2005 that CO2 emissions will only fall 14% below 1990 levels by 2010 at current production levels, therefore missing the domestic target.

Public Acceptance

The latest public opinion poll by Ipsos MORI on behalf of the Nuclear Industry Association (NIA) published in December 2008 shows broadening support for new nuclear based on worries over security of supply and climate change – and energy costs. Opposition to new nuclear power stations is at its lowest level since polling began in 2002:

• 65% of the public support nuclear as part of a balanced energy mix (10% disagree)
• 44% of the public support the replacement of existing nuclear power stations, just 19% would oppose (the lowest figure recorded since polling began).
• 40% of the public would back an increased role for nuclear in the UK’s energy mix, only 24% would oppose further growth (a drop of 16 points in opposition since 2005).

 

Source of all charts: Statistical pocket book 2010, DG Energy